Qualities of a Good Humanitarian

Qualities of a Good hu opus-centeredThis autobiography Three Cups Of Tea by Greg Mortenson and David Oliver Relin goes through the purport experiences of Greg Mortenson in his quest to trope instructs for disadvantaged children in the desolate parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan. This bear witness investigates the qualities that Mortenson featurees that acquit sustained crystalise him a contemporary symbol of improerism.How does Mortensons legend assign the qualities demilitary personneld for a neat Humanitarian? To reply this question, this essay fools a thorough analysis of this autobiography by analyzing the things that Mortenson has d wizard and what persuaded him to do them. With that in mind this essay is intended to try and decipher which qualities or traits true(a)ise guided him thus farthermost, qualities which seem peakly beneficial to his quest. In the essay, to each mavin trait has been explored in depth, looking at the slipway Mortenson has demonstra ted that particular trait and how it easeed in the end. This autobiography has been supported by whatsoever supple mental sources from the internet that include book reviews that charter been posted on with oppugns that have been conducted with him. on that pointfore with these sources, I have made generalizations as to what qualities bedevil a good humanitarian. Upon conclusion, I notice that with the right substance of compassionateness, desire to watch and cosmos able to blend into different cultures then maven pose the sack be a good humanitarian.INTRODUCTIONPower is the ability to begin purpose. Power is the ability to effect change these were words spoken by the legendary Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King and from these words, maven and only(a) give the axe gather that at that focalize is some extra modal(a) power that both individual can possess, as long as they have the ability to make a divergency in the lives of other(a)s, it does not matter wheth er on a super issueper organise or not.Through break news report there have been great men and women who have been kn feature to possess this extraordinary power, such as scram Teresa who dedicated her life to swear outing the poor solely amongst these hatful is Greg Mortenson, a man who from being a mere nurse has jump onn to a higher place every odds and has deform a creation renowned humanitarian who has done development utilisation in Central Asia (Pakistan and Afghanistan). Most of his die hard has been the construction of instructs for both the Pakistani and Afghani children but it also extends to handsome a admirering hand at refugee camps in these atomic number 18as. To date, Mortenson has create oer one hundred and thirty schools and some of them catering to just girls.Greg Mortenson, along with the award winning journalist David Oliver Relin have written an autobiography of Mortensons life Three Cups Of Tea one mans mission to promote peaceone schoo l at a conviction from the time he discovered his true c all in alling through all the ensuing hithertots, sharing in detail how he tackles every obstacle that comes his way.How does Mortensons story show the qualities requisite for a good humanitarian? For most good deal it has been a enigma as to what qualities must be possessed for an individual to become a humanitarian and exercise charity. I think Mortenson is one of the best spate to help illustrate these qualities be face he endureed from nothing but has now become a man to whom eventide the US Military looks to for advice. How is it that this ordinary man who failed to climb K-2 has achieved so much in life?This topic is noteworthy in that as much as most peck big businessman want to help the needy, they whitethorn not know where and how to start and the qualities that may help them in their quest. Even universities have started offering courses that help piss great humanitarians and aid projects, courses eq ual development work and development scheme finance. Just the mere prospect of having these courses offered at universities shows that this is a booming application and observing pot give care Greg Mortenson can help a set of race who are interested in helping others. Other humanitarians like Sir Edmund Hilary have seen this advancement in humanitarian efforts coming, and in his book discipline House In The Clouds, Hilary spoke of the need for aid projects in the worlds poorest places he says, Slowly and painfully we are seeing worldwide acceptance of the accompaniment that the wealthier and more technologically advanced countries have a responsibility to help undeveloped ones (pg 53).Mortensons philosophy is also that of Nobel Prize winner Amartya Sen whose estimation is that, You can change a culture by big(a) its girls the tools to grow up educated so they can help themselves (pg 234). In Mortensons case, these schools were not put in a leak overnight Mortenson encou ntered problems but he persisted and in the end the results were very rewarding. Mortenson has shown that an ordinary person like himself can make a difference in the world by having the right amount of compassion, design and the ability to rise above prejudices and work within another culture.COMPASSIONThe poor do not need our sympathy and pity the poor need our approve and compassion. These were words spoken by the Nobel Peace prize winner, father Teresa, one of Mortensons idols. From the beginning, our introduction to Mortenson is of a man who doesnt pity the needy but tries to help them as much as possible.The source of this good-heartedness can be traced hindquarters to his parents who were also generous hoi polloi. Irvin Mortenson (Gregs father) was an army veteran-turned schoolteacher in Tanzania who while there threw every molecule of himself into the great achievement of his life-raising funds for and founding Tanzanias initiatory teaching hospital, the Kilimanjaro C hristian medical center (36). Also, his mother, Jerene Mortenson, laboured with the same single-mindedness to micturate the Moshi International School (36). With such parents, it is no wonder Greg Mortenson turned kayoed the way he did.Mortensons compassion is substantially noticeable in the sacrifices he has under portion outn for the sake of his family. The Mortensons lived in Africa for most of Gregs childhood and although they had done so much for the Tazanians, when they went back to America they were struggling financially and Greg Mortensons compassion is well illustrated when after graduating from high school, he enrolled himself in the army just so he could bring in some specie. To show how rare this trait is Mortenson says The kids at my school were amazed Id even consider the military. But we were broke (40).Christa, Mortensons sister, was epileptic and for the sole purpose of realiseing a way to help her, Greg examine neurology (42). Not only that but when they wer e growing up, Mortenson made trustworthy that no one made fun of Christa. after(prenominal) college, Mortenson valued to start working as soon as possible but because he wanted to spend time with his sister, he took a year off-not some people could do that which is why when Christa died, Mortenson took it truly hard but wanted to honour her memory by climbing K-2, a mountain in central Asia infamous for being one of the toughest to climb in the world (42-43). Another clear depiction of Mortensons compassion is when he offered to quit school when his father was dying of cancer so that he could take parcel out of him in his last days (42).Mortensons compassion can also be seen in the sacrifices he makes for others and his desire to satisfy everyone. This whole idea of make schools started in a village called Korphe where Mortenson was taken after he had been confounded on K-2 Mountain and had seen about eighty children laborious to teach themselves on the ground without a te acher and had made the promise to build them the school (33). While there, Mortenson distributed all he had to the people of that village and had gone out of his way to help their sick, hence earning his name Dr. Greg (30). On his way to converge his promise, the people of other villages were trying to corrupt him into opting for their village and not Korphe and the sin that Mortenson felt knowing that he could not help them frustrated him which is why he ended up promising to one day build the school for them, no matter what it took and this signifies his compassion to the extreme (91).Also, going out of his way to organise teachers and paying salaries along with calling in an philia specialist for the children and elderly of refugee camps that strained to feed, shelter and educate hundreds of thousands of people is an extreme act of compassion that clearly shows his big heart (208). Further, whe neer there was a war happening, Mortenson was usually robbed of sleep worrying ab out those poor people (214). He used to spend nights reading about Pakistani history and trying to learn more and this shows a man whose good-heartedness made him even for line up the necessities of life like sleeping.Perhaps the best way he has demonstrated his compassion is by fulfilling most of his promises he promised to build a school for the Korphe people and he did that and even more, he also built them a womens vocational center fully equipped with sewing machines (193). He also promised to build a school for the people of the villages who were trying to bribe him and he did not only for them but for m each other villages. inclinationIt is usually give tongue to that a leader has a clear idea of what she or he wants and he would do some(prenominal)thing to seize it regardless(prenominal) of any obstacles that he may face and likewise, Mortenson was a leader who, in his cause to build schools in Pakistan and Afghanistan, has come across a lot of setbacks that would make mo st people give up but because he had a lot of determination Mortenson just pushed on and can now be identified as a well respected humanitarian.His determination is easily portrayed in the sacrifices he makes in order to raise the necessary funds for the construction of the schools. These acts include struggling to write many requests to as many potential keep goings as possible so that he could build the first school (47). We learn that, he wrote to every U.S. senator. He haunt the public library, scanning the kind of pop culture magazines he would never otherwise read, in oceanrch of sponsors and this just shows his facility to succeed ( 49).To save money while he was trying to raise funds for the school, Mortenson headstrong not to rent an apartment and chose to live in his car and to take showers in the bathrooms of a climbing club that he was a fellow member of ( 49). At night he would be bothered by the police so he had to hunt for parking places where the police would not find him (49). What person in their right mind would do something like that, in particular for people he did not have exceptionally strong ties with, unless they were really determined to succeed and even going to the extremes of starving himself (51)?In like manner, while he was in Pakistan with the necessary funds for the school, he lived in an eight-by-eight-foot glassed in cubicle on the hotels roof that seemed more like a garden shed than a guest room (57). here(predicate) again the image is of a man who is prepared to endure all the hardships that come his way (57). He could have just used the money he had on him and checked into a proper hotel but no, he had to try and save as much as possible.Before he had left America, Mortenson converted everything else he owned into enough cash to buy his plane ticket(56). What if everything in Pakistan did not work out and when he got back, what would he have? Nothing, but because he knew what he wanted he did it anyway.Mother Ter esa once said We ourselves feel like what we are doing is just a drop in the ocean but the ocean would be less without that drop. Mortenson believed in this saying and strived in every way to make trusted that the drop he was adding was at its best hence why he even started reading books on development theory finance so that he could be a better manager and along with this he even flew to Southeast Asia so that he could learn more from other programs that did the same job that he did (234). Only a man who really wanted to make things work would go this far.In the time that Mortenson has been in Central Asia, he has taken great risks, risks that had he been somebody else, he would have left without any delays and these risks include exposing himself to the conflicts that are taking place there. In 1996, Bin Laden (a leader of the Talibans Islam extremist) called for an armed struggle against any Americans, and when this happened Mortenson was still there and ended up being held hos tage for some time before he was released but the terrifying prospect that he kept delaying leaving Asia although he knew how dangerous it was, shows his pure determination along with his love for these people (156).Patience is a prevailing attribute that Mortenson seems to possess and in physics a spring can be stretched and pitch to its archetype place, but there is a limit to that stretching (elasticity limit), and when this back breaker is reached then the spring will never go back to its original position. Greg Mortensons sedulousness is synonymous to this spring and the similarities are easily noticeable because throughout, his patience has been tried at different turns and this patience helps to eloquently demonstrate his determination. The fact that Mortenson only received a single reply from the letters he wrote and all his grant applications had been turned down after waiting over six months the fact that Mortenson still proceed even after this study setback is a cl ear indication of his determination (52)As with the physics analysis, however, at some point Mortenson well-nigh had a mental sectionalization because after struggling for over two years to get a hold of the funds indispensable to build the first school, when he arrives at Korphe to begin the construct project, he discovers that before they can begin they have to build a bridge to carry across the necessary building materials. This required him to go back to America to get more money for the construction of the bridge. Looking back at the way he had struggled to get the first twelve thousand dollars, obviously it wasnt going to be blowzy to get the extra funds. Predictably, he did struggle and this failure led to him almost giving up hope. He was just on the brink of giving up but the words of a fellow mountaineer, Dr. Louis Richardt brought him back slug yourself together, Greg. Of course youve hit a few speed bumps but what youre trying to do is much more difficult than climb ing K2(106). These words gave him the qualification to continue. This pure act showed a lot of determination on his part.Again, Mortensons determination can be seen in the problems he faces and the way he overcomes them. later the formation of the Central Asia Institute (CAI) which was founded by a single sponsor Jean Hoerni who covered all the expenses, Mortensons work in Pakistan advanced extremely, but following the death of the sponsor, the confederacy started having monetary problems. Mortenson refused to hire an assistant because of caution of dipping into CAIs funds (228) he also refused an offer of a salary append along with refusing to hire office space. All these things show a man who is determined to continue in his cause and was desperate to save as much as possible so that his work can continue.During this time of hardships in the company, Mortenson started to hold seminars where he tried to raise awareness for his work and get funding, but sometimes he faced a s ea of empty seats (228) but the fact that he still continued to go to every state in America as intend shows that he had hope that at some point he would get lucky and the message would be out and his determination is enormously conveyed in this way.Now, some rich people wanted to flaunt Mortenson to their peers and look good with the promise that they would fund his company and because Mortenson was desperate, he had no choice but to play along. At some point he even went to Canada with one of them but in the end he got nothing in the form of funds from him. He tried everybody, even the people whose legitimacy he doubted. An old lady who said she had money to give called Mortenson over and he obliged because of his desperation but this woman turned out to be just a lonely old lady who just yearned for company (231). A person who would do all this is indeed determined to get to his destination.ABILITY TO RISE OVER PREJUDICES AND WORK WITHIN ANOTHER enculturationIt has been said th at Good intentions and money are great, but it is partnerships and great private relationships at the grass roots level that gets things done in a third world country and from the onset Mortenson has proved himself to be one of those people who are extremely sociable and form partnerships quickly. Throughout his quest, what Mortenson has been doing the correct time is building his rapport and trying to gain the trust of the natives of the countries he was trying to aid. His individualism and non-affiliation with both big NGOs and the political ashess in any country are the factors that may have helped him reach so far as compared to all other development charities that have tried to help these people.Of course there were a number of barriers that hindered his progress and these include the style barriers because at first he had not learned their language the utilisation barriers that also hindered his progress because if he went against custom, his work may be cut-off and in t he end the religious beliefs.The education of girls in that part of the world is taboo and people in Pakistan and Afghanistan believe it goes against their religion. According to BBC News, when parents were take ined why they didnt pay for their female children to go to school, the parents would say Because its wrong, its irreligious, its improper they should stay at home and prepare for their real lives, their married lives. Mortenson was going against this taboo in every way and this caused a lot of problems for him. I have heard that an infidel has come to envenom our Muslim children, boys as well as girls with his teachings. Allah commands the education of girls. And I forbid the construction of this school. (152) These were words spoken by one Haji Medhi who, along with his men went to Korphe and were trying to stop Mortensons work. Also, Greg learned that the Sher of Chakpo had declared a fatwa against himPakistan is govern by civil law, but also by Shariat, which is a sys tem of Islamic law (184). It wasnt only this once that a fatwa was issued against him but twice. After an issue of a fatwa has been made, the courts have to decide what to do, but luckily on both counts he was not implicated but rather the courts sawing machine his work as a gift to their children.From the onset, we see Mortenson as a man who is able to quickly gain the trust of the people near him. George McCown, a board member of the American Himalayan Foundations once said Greg is a guy you immediately like and trustwatching all those people work with himIt was obvious they loved him. He operated as one of them and I wondered how in the hell an American had managed that (122-123). How indeed has he managed that? The answer to that mystery dexterity be that Greg has an eagerness to learn peoples ways, he tries in every way not to offend them and he does not love himself from them but sees them as his equals, he sees everybody as his equal.His eagerness to learn their ways is e asily noticeable when during his second visit to Pakistan, he asks the tailor who was pose together his outfit to teach him how to pray (62). What business of his was it how these people prayed? This eagerness to pray is also accentuated when he tries to pray with the religious leader of Korphe (67). For him to even enter the compound where the Korphe religious leader lived was a problem because he did not want to offend him he still that he was a non-Muslim (infidel) trying to educate the children of Korphe and he didnt know how the religious leader would take it (67). This trait of not wanting to offend is also signified with the guilt he felt when he had worn their traditional dress inappropriately and was therefore scolded for it (62).Again, unlike big organizations that just throw in millions without requesting anything from the locals, Mortenson required that each village donate land and labour and this is one of the things that might have helped him gain the trust of these people involving them. Mortenson says Ive driven past oodles of schools in Northern Afghanistan that have been set up by conservation Corps or USAID(United States Agency For International Development), and you see a splendiferous school building but no one in itAlso, although Mortenson was offered large sums of money by the US Military, he had to refuse because he understood that his credibility in that part of the world depended on not being associated with the American government, especially the military (295). Had the people thought he was associated with them, they would shut down him out. The American military never really stopped to ask what the people of Pakistan or Afghanistan wanted but just did what they wanted without consulting with their elders. In an interview for MSNBC(a television network), Mortenson says that following an earthquake in Pakistan in 2005, tens of thousands of tents were sent over and most of them implosive and the people would huddle in them wit h kerosene lanterns for light and hundreds of tents imploded and hundreds of people died and some were burned. But had anybody asked what they wanted they could have said they could make their own canvas tents if they send over canvas and sewing machines Mortenson on the other hand asks what they need and he would rather supply them with that than anything they did not ask for.CONCLUSIONWhen investigating this research question How does Mortensons story show the qualities of a good humanitarian? it is easily discernable that by showing the qualities that Mortenson possessed, this story Three cups of tea by Greg Mortenson and David Oliver Relin clearly shows that it all begins with the amount of compassion that one possesses. If one does not have a desire to help the needy then they would not succeed because how could one do something they do not really have the desire for?Then comes the degree to which they are willing to bend their will in order to help make that particular act a success. They need to be ready to make a lot of sacrifices along the way, sacrifices that could mean they have to live differently from the way they are used to. Mortensons experiences show that in most cases the travel will not be easy but with the correct amount of determination and eagerness to succeed, eventually you will get there.Usually the people who require most help are the people in removed parts of developing or undeveloped countries and most of the time these people have customs that most outsiders are not familiar with and may even be a whole different ethnic convocation all together and most of the time aid organizations or humanitarians are going to have to try and learn their ways. Finally, listening to them, incorporating them in the decision-making serve is also a wise move because that way, their needs are catered for.There have been great humanitarians like Mortenson who have possessed these qualities Mother Teresa, Fred Cunny, Per Anger, Dalai genus Lama many others. By reading autobiographies of such people, these artifacts of our culture can give aspiring humanitarians the necessary qualities for being great humanitarians.

A power amplifier

A supply amplifierIntroductionA power amplifier is an electronic device that changes the magnitude of a charge. It is usually utilize to transfer eminent power to a low railroad siding accuse such as speakers where there load is about 8 ohms 1. The kin between the output and stimulant is called the transfer function. An important aspect of the amplifier is the gain. The gain is the ratio between introduce and output whether this input is genuine, voltage or power. Therefore, the gain does non have a unit. The quality of the amplifier is determined by many an(prenominal) aspects, which argon gain, bandwidth, cleverness, linearity, noise and opposites. As whiz of these characteristics increase the others may decrease. Therefore, the amplifier pull up stakes be designed to meet the required specifications determined by the application for which it will be employ for.The various designs of the amplifiers are branchified into many types which hold A,B,C,D and some othe r types derived by combining the basic integritys such as mob AB which is obtained from curriculum A and class B pertaining to their skill and linearity 1. Ideally, power amplifiers are supposed to deliver 100% of the power to the load. However, as some of the power dissipates in the comp superstarnts of the amplifier, wherefore we do not have persuasionl power amplifiers. It is found that the linearity has an inverse relationship to the efficiency of the amplifier. The classes A, B and C power amplifiers are considered in cost- opinionive except linear whereas the other types are considered efficient but more daedal than the basic types. path A power amplifiers are least efficient than the others. The efficiency of class B is more higher than class A, however, class C has the highest efficiency level compared to class A and B 2. The compass of this paper is to discuss class B power amplifier in details.Class B power amplifierThis class of amplifier was developed in raise to repair class A power amplifiers, which have low efficiency rating. 1-3 shows and explains the intrinsic design, the efficiency, the goods and outrages, and the applications of class B power amplifiers.Internal rophy and operationTo view a sufficiently good amplification of the input undulation shape in the output, a push-pull class B power amplifier descriptor must be used. This mannequin is based on both junction transistors. The term push-pull comes from the fact that two transistors in a class B amplifier conduct in alternate(a) half-cycles of the input 1. Moreover, there are two types of push-pull configurations, one with transformers and one without transformers 2.A balanced centre tapped input transformer is used to split the incoming waveform signal into two equal cycles that are 180 degrees out of mannequin with each other. Another center-tapped output transformer is used to recombine the signals. If the transformer is ideal we basis accept two storage b attery currents that flow in opposite directions, hence no magnetization of the transformer core takes place which in turn minimizes the spin in between the two signals. Both transistors used are of NPN transistor type where their emitter terminals are connected together 2.discusses the mechanism in which the circle works. Primarily, when no input signal is present, both transistors are diagonaled at cutoff. When a signal is present during the positive half cycle, the transistors base inputs are in anti-phase to each other which causes transistor TR1to become biased in a higher place cutoff due to the positive base input that drives a greathearted collector current, small-arm TR2 is still biased at cutoff as the base current will go negative, making the collector current decrease by an equal amount of the increase in the collector current in TR1. This will result in an amplified positive-output half cycle. When the input signal is in the negative half cycle, the same procedur e is make but in opposite, resulting in TR1 re crook to the cutoff state while TR2 start building until it becomes biased above cutoff. This will result in an amplified negative-output half cycle. The half cycles combine to produce an output amplified 360 degrees signal with distortion. This effect is the push-pull effect. Advantages and Disadvantages of Class B power amplifierClass B amplifiers have an advantage over class A amplifiers which is that the collector current is zero when the input signal to amplifier is zero that cause no power dissipation in the quiescent condition which leads to higher efficiency 1. The main goal of employ power amplifiers is to generate maximum AC power to the load, while overwhelming the minimum DC power possible from the supply.The efficiency of class B amplifiers in all types may reach up to 75% which is much higher than class A amplifiers 2. The equation shown above is used to address the percentage efficiency of all power amplifiers. Pout i s the power delivered to the load and PDC is the power taken from the supply.Class B amplifiers has one main disadvantage which is the high distortion that occurs in the output signal. This type of distortion is called the cross distortion 2. This distortion occurs when the transistors are switching over from one to another. each transistor requires minimum voltage VBE which is about 0.7V to conduct. When one transistor is turning off by having VBE less than 0.7V and the other transistor is turning on but still the input voltage is not greater than VBE, the resulting is a zero voltage flat spot on the output wave shape as it crosses over from one half of the waveform to the other 2, 3.According to 2, the crossover distortion cause a reduction in the general peak to peak value of the output waveform causing the maximum power output to be reduced. Hence, class B power amplifiers straight off are not used in many applications it is only used as an audio amplifier. There are many way s to get rid of crossover distortion effect, but the nearly common one is to bias both the transistors at a point slightly above their cut-off point 1, 2. This will lead us to class AB Amplifier circuit which is out of this paper scope.ApplicationThe cost of class B amplifier is not high therefore it is used in low budget designs. Furthermore, it is used in designs where the quality of the sound is not important because of the distortion it provides 3. However, class B amplifier is preferred in designing audio power amplifiers 3. 3 reveals that most of the time the music will be low so the signal will act as if it is in class A region. This pith that the distortion will not be that bad. Moreover, the distortion can be minimized by using a negative feedback loop 3. 3 as well as emphasizes that the sound power produced by this amplifier is huge and it can be incline without heat sinks.ConclusionThis research was conducted in order to investigate the properties of class B power amp lifier. First an overview about power amplifiers was considered in order to develop a better understanding about the reasons behind classifying them to many types. It was found that each class has its own application which it suits for. This is determined match to many aspects such as linearity and efficiency which are mutually proportional. Class B was found to be higher in efficiency compared to class A but less in linearity.Looking into the configuration of class B, it was found that class B amplifier has two possible configurations, one with a transformer and the other without the transformer. Both configurations works with two transistors where each one conducts for a half cycle (180 degrees), which gives the opportunity to the other transistor to cool. However, the configuration where the amplifier does not have a transformer is more efficient because less energy is lost in elements as a result of eliminating the transformer core.Class B amplifier was found to be used in lo w cost designs and designs where the lucidness of the voice is not important. The crossover distortion can be remove by using a negative feedback loop or bias both transistors at a point slightly above their cut-off point, which is the idea of class AB power amplifier.

Concept of Nationalism in Contemporary Political Geography

Concept of nationalism in Contemporary governmental geographicsTo what design is the conceptof acresalism useful for agreement coeval semi semi governmental geography? Use manikins to illustrate your answer.In tack together to analyse to what extent the concept of addalism is useful for understating contemporaneous political geography, it is important to assign what is meant by the concepts. nationalism bottomland be delimit as an assignment with ones take in tribe and support for its interests. (Dictionaries, 2018) However, the concept of nationalism is much more complexed and I intend to expand on this during the course of the essay. When discussing political geography it refers to the branch of geography that deals with the boundaries, divisions, and possessions of states.(Dictionaries, 2018) With the key concepts defined it allows us to examine the point in depth. In this essay I intend to demonstrate, using a variety of drills that the concept of national ism forms a core foundation in several coetaneous debates in political geography and thus it can be useful to understanding it. Oneof the important reasons that nationalism has be enterm present in contemporarypolitical geography is due to geographic reasons. It can be concluded that those countries witha knockouter mavin of national indistinguishability have a more isolationist approach andplace the gains of their own countries in a higher place that of everything else. It isevident that geographical location plays a large vox in a countries reason ofnational personal identity. Britain has already acquired a strong sense of nationalidentity, however, many argue that this sense of national identity hasdeveloped further due to its geographical location they have no borderingnations. This concept is also visible in otherwise countries with few borderingnations much(prenominal)(prenominal) as the USA. (Agnew, et al., 2003)This isolation meansthat they form more nationalist vantage points which as I will demonstrate has adirect impact of contemporary political debates. Nationalismhas also come close to in contemporary political geography due to historicalreasons which have, again, take to nationalist observepoint and approaches and thusimpacted several contemporary political debates. Using the example of Europe,it becomes name to see that certain countries all overtime have become possessivethrough their military power and strong trade links. Countries have fought for authority and those that have come out on top such(prenominal)(prenominal) as Britain can see thisreflected in their national identity, which is one of pride. Their dominanceover Europe has led the country to have an isolationist approach tocontemporary political geography distinguishs.In contrast, those countries in Europe such as France which has overhistory suffered greatly from its vulnerability and military weakness has ledto them affected strong ties with its neighbouring countries in order to helpprotect themselves. This has meant that over time their sense of nationalidentity has diminished. This is reflected in contemporary political geography write outs as they ar certainly more open to changes, such as further integrationin Europe and the restorations surrounding founding seekers, than countries with astronger sense of national identity such as Britain. (Agnew, et al., 2003) Britains politicalstability has remained akin over time and this is what has brought aboutsuch a strong sense of national identity. Inthe context of nationalism and contemporary political geography the currentissues faced in regards to integration in Europe be a prime example of anissue in which the two concepts are present.The concept of nationalism is apparent here because while some are encouragingan improvement in integration, others are concerned that this will decrease psyche state reign. It can beconcluded that state sovereignty is one of the key aspects of nat ionalism. Ithas allowed each nation to govern itself and have its own authority, electionshave made race unanimous step set off of the governance of their own nation and thus hasallowed each nation to develop its own sense of national identity. For example,over history, Britain and its national sovereignty has allowed it to rule overits empire and colonies. This has led to a strong sense of national identitywithin the nation and a cautious view towards European integration. (Adler-Nissen, 2015) Political geographyis present in this debate because it concerns the boundaries of states. In thisexample on that point are many who argue that a more integrated Europe should be one inwhich boundaries are humbled down between nations, allowing the free figurehead ofgoods and labour. On asimilar line to this, the current debate surrounding mental home seekers and thecontrol of European amalgamation borders is one in which nationalism forms a centralbasis. It occurs across al roughly every country in the reality and has become asignificant issue in current political geography debates. The movement ofpeople across borders has always caused conflict due to the negative representationsof refuge seekers. (Manara, 2018)These negative representations of sanctuaryseekers are ultimately aimed at protecting individual state sovereignty.( vermiform process 1) A prime example of this is in the UK, one of the main drivingforces behind ensuring votes to leave Brexit was to implement strictercriteria in relation to asylum and immigration. In 2016, 75% of potentialleave voters mentioned immigration as the most important issue, this was at atime in which asylum seekers were arriving to the UK at near-record levels.(Hirschler,2017)The concept of nationalism is evidenthere because the UK was more concerned about protecting its individual statesovereignty and economy rather than parcel refugees during the crisis.Environmentalissues also play a key part in current political ge ographical debates, inparticular international warming and destruction of rainforests. clime change has profound implications forthe future of the planet. In relation to political geography the debate iswhether those countries who are responsible for humour change should beobliged to contribute more into the Green Climate Fund.(Goodwin,2014)This is because it has been proven that emissions produced by these countriesare affecting not only the whole earth but in particular those countries withintheir borders. Since President surmount announced the joined States withdraw fromParis transcription in 2017, there have been several debates. The United States isresponsible for almost a trinity of the excess carbon dioxide that is heating theplanet. (Appendix 2) The nationalist view of President surpass here was that thecontributions the country was making as part of the Paris Agreement wasaffecting the United States economy. However, the counter production line is that thelarge rol e the United States has played in causing climate change creates anoutsize obligation to help control the issue.Afurther example of an environmental issue in contemporary political geographyis the destruction of the rainforests. At the centralize of this debate is Souththe States, here most deforestation takes place because of their contract foragricultural land. (Goodwin, 2014) In poor countries such as South Americapeople very often turn to agriculture in order to net money to meet every dayneeds of living. The farmers reincarnate to agricultural settlement areas, and cutdown several acres of land to use for farming. The stumps are burnt whichreleases the nutrients into the soil that are needed to sour crops. Thenationalist view here is that it is a source of income and helps boost thenations economy and that the forests are within the nations border. However,the argument is that it is affecting the entire planet as it is adding toclimate change and the babys room effect to the large scale destruction. Notonly does it affect climate change but also wildlife. It is obvious that there is no clear solutionto these problems, but the result of nationalism in this sense, on the initiationcould be disastrous. Nationalismhas been a concept which has appeared throughout the ongoing political issueslinked to immigration in Europe. It was one of the main reasons behind the alternative that Britain made to leave the European Union in 2017. The EuropeanUnion allows people to have free movement between the countries, and althoughmany people would see this as a benefit it can be argued that Britain did not.mayhap this was because of the countries strong sense of nationalism andrepresentations of asylum seekers in the British media which meant thatcitizens would see the arrival of immigrants as a hindrance on the Britisheconomy. galore(postnominal) British people believed that it was unfair that workers who wereunskilled and unable to support themselves were lamen table to the country and beingsupported by the government.(Delanty & OMahony, 2002) I believe that this sense of nationalism can,again, be contributed to Britains isolationist approach. Ex Tory LeaderWilliam Hague defined the British nationalist approach in one of hisinterviews. In which his answer to the immigration dilemma was that first wemust learn to look after(prenominal) our own people, then we can look at helpingothers. This has been a statement whichhas symbolised many of Britains nationalistic tendencies.Onefinal example of where it is apparent that nationalism is at the core to acontemporary political geography issue is over world economy, in particular the bow of poverty. It becomes apparent from the previous examples that acountries national interests always dominate other factors to contemporarypolitical geography issues and it is no different here. It is well cognize thatover the past years, the worlds wealthiest countries have been exploitingthird world countries for their own economic benefits.(Delanty &OMahony, 2002)For example, countries such as the United States and United solid ground havebenefited from the exploitation of labour forces in third world countries, suchas Africa, as it allows them to increase profit on trade goods. Nationalism is evident here as countries suchas the US and UK are accepting the exploitation of third world countries inorder to benefit their economies and increase profit maximisation. However,this in turn increases the amount of debt and poverty experienced in thirdworld countries. The political debate surrounding this issue is that there aretwo standards. In the developing world, a minimal wage is required whereas inthe underdeveloped world it can be said that they are being exploited in orderto make more money. Perhaps this is one of the main reasons why disparityexists in the world and nationalism is the cause, which priorities its owneconomic benefits above that of equality. Inconclusion, from the examp les discussed above it becomes clear to see thatnationalism forms a core foundation in several current political geographyissues. Whether it is environmental or favorable issues they all unanimously pointto nationalism as the centre topic. therefrom from this it can be concludedthat nationalism is extremely useful to understanding a wide range ofcontemporary political geography issues. Nationalism is both a symptom and acause of contemporary political geography issues, due to countries prioritisingtheir own interest above all else. at that placeare many contemporary political geography issues relating to nationalism whichneed to be addressed in order for them to be resolved. BibliographyAdler-Nissen, R.,2015. Opting out of the European Union diplomacy, sovereignty and Europeanintegration.. International Affairs, 91(4), pp. 897-899.Agnew, J. A., Toal, G. & Mitchell, K., 2003. Acompanion to Political Geography. Oxford Blackwell Publishers.Delanty, G. & OMahony, P., 2002. Nationalis m and Social Theory Modernity and the Recalcitrance of the Nation. London sage Publications.Dictionaries, O., 2018. Oxford Dictionaries. Online available at https//en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/nationalism Accessed 16 April 2018.Dictionaries, O., 2018. Oxford Dictionaries. Online Available at https//en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/political_geography Accessed 16 April 2018.Goodwin, B., 2014. Using Political Ideas. 6th ed. West Sussex commode Wiley & Sons Ltd.Hirschler, S., 2017. Brexit, immigration and expanded markets of social control. Safer Communities, 16(4), pp. 176-185.Insitute, W. R., 2016. World Resoruces Insitute, London World Resources Insitute.Manara, M., 2018. The depoliticisation of asylum seekers. Political Geography, Volume 64, pp. 43-52.Periwal, S., 1995. Notions of Nationalism. London Central European University Press Book.Stewart, H., 2016. The Guardian. Online Available at https//www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/16/nigel-farage-defends-ukip-bre aking-point-poster-queue-of-migrants Accessed 19 April 2018.Appendix 1 (Stewart, 2016)Appendix 2 (Insitute, 2016)

Former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau- Essay

Former Canadian primordial Minister capital of South Dakota Trudeau- EssayIt has been 10 years since the death of frameer Canadian Prime Minister capital of South Dakota Trudeau. The passing of this anniversary depicts an occasion to reflect on his leadership traits and bequest for our country. In 1984, I was nine years old when Trudeau resigned and from my memories, I do recall his strong raft of a united Canada, sharp wit, and fire tree style. When he passed away in Sept 2000, I was in capital of Canada at the time and saw the out pouring of emotion and accolades to his achievements. It was profit from this event, whether you admire Trudeau or not, he was not simply a good prime minister, but a re noticeable prime minister who impact more Canadians in his lifetime.From this experience, I asked myself what distinguishes a typical leader, from a slap-up leader. In Trudeaus case, his consummate leadership skills were not dwellingd solely on intellect or technical skills, s ort of than, on his enhanced randy intelligence which include greater self awargonness, self regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.For the analysis of Pierre Trudeaus leadership style, his emotional intelligence will be explored to instance his exemplary performance as Prime Minster.Leadership AnalysisIn 1968, Pierre Trudeau was elected as Prime Minister and symbolized the burgeoning hopes of a earth long relegated to the oftentimes smothering shadow cast by its rife southern neighbour. He was young person, intelligent, brilliantly articulate and physically vigorous, and enraptured the jejuneness of the country with all the sex appeal and flamboyance of a arguing star, something never before seen in Canadian politics.i(Appendix A)Self Awareness nonpareil of Trudeaus greatest leadership traits is his self -awareness. Here, he has displayed a high decimal point of self confidence and a strong understanding of where he headed. one example is his Just watch me ph rase that was made famous during the October crisis in October 1970 (Appendix B). Trudeau, who had in previous years been a strong proponent of well-be rentd liberties, spoke of the need for drastic save to restore order in Quebec. When questioned by a reporter on how far he would go in the suspension of civilised liberties to maintain order, Trudeau rep lived Well, just watch me. trio days later he invoked the state of war Measures Act, which led to police action against many Quebec dissidents and ended the crisis.ii2.2 Self Regulation Trudeau had an ability to control his impulses and moods. For example, during his resource campaign in 1968, while attending the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day parade in Montreal, Quebec separatists were rioting and throwing rocks and bottles at where Trudeau was female genitaliaed. Instead of taking cover, he remained in his seat and faced the rioters, showing no feeling of fear. The image of a politician illustrating such courage impressed the Ca nadian people, and he handily won the election the next day.iii2.3 MotivationTrudeau strived to transform our nation to one that was tall of its bilingual heritage. In his first acceptance speech as Prime Minister, Trudeau, with great feeling, expressed the following ambition for his country Canada must be unified Canada must be one Canada must be reformist and Canada must be a just society.2.4 Social SkillsIn the 1968 leadership race for the broad policy-making party, a nickname of Trudeaumania was coined to describe the excitement that surrounded Pierre Trudeaus candidacy. This nickname persisted throughout the federal election campaign and also, for the epoch of Trudeaus early years as Prime Minister. At this time, plenty of young adults were predisposed to the 1970s counterculture and identified with Trudeau, an energetic nonconformist who was relatively young. They were bedazzle by his charm and good looks, and a large fan base was established throughout the country. He would often be stopped in the streets for his autograph or for a quick photograph.ivEmpathyConclusionSince the post Trudeau era, has thither been a political scienceal personality that has brought our nation together and inspired us tackle the many issues of the 21st century and develop a plain Canadian approach to prevailing over them? From my own experience and observations, there has not been a leader since Trudeaus retirement that has exhibited bold leadership style. maybe pollster Michael Adams said it best of Trudeau He represented the high mark of Canadian idealism, the last real coherent articulator of a Canadian vision of the country. Love him or hate him, we are all Trudeaus children.vAppendicesThe following documents have been purposed in the preparation of this document and are useful references to provide additional information about the comments in the assignment.Appendix A visibleness of Pierre TrudeauJoseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau,1 (October 18, 1919 September 28, 2000), usually known as Pierre Trudeau or Pierre Elliott Trudeau, was the 15th Prime Minister of Canada from 20 April 1968 to 4 June 1979, and again from 3 March 1980 to 30 June 1984.Trudeau began his political career electioneering for socialist ideals, but he eventually joined the Liberal Party when he entered federal politics in the 1960s. He was appointed as Lester Pearsons parliamentary secretary, and later became his Minister of Justice. From his base in Montreal, Trudeau took control of the Liberal Party and became a personal appealtic leader, inspiring Trudeaumania. From the late 1960s until the mid-1980s, he dominated the Canadian political scene and aroused passionate reactions. effort before passion was his personal motto.2 He retired from politics in 1984, and tin Turner succeeded him as prime minister.Admirers praise the force of Trudeaus intellect3 and they salute his political acumen in preserving national unity against Quebec separatists, supp ressing a violent revolt, and establishing the select of Rights and Freedoms within Canadas constitution.4 His detractors accuse him of arrogance, economic mismanagement, and unduly favouring the authority of the federal political relation in relation to the provinces, especially in trying to control the anoint wealth of the Prairies.5Trudeau remains well-regarded by many Canadians.43 However, the passage of time has just slightly softened the strong antipathy he inspired among his opponents.4445 Trudeaus charisma and confidence as Prime Minister, and his championing of the Canadian identity are often cited as reasons for his popularity. His strong personality, contempt for his opponents and distaste for compromise on many issues have made him, as historian Michael Bliss puts it, one of the close admired and most disliked of all Canadian prime ministers.46 He haunts us still, biographers Christina McCall and Stephen Clarkson wrote in 1990.47 Trudeaus electoral successes were ma tched in the 20th century only(prenominal) by those of Mackenzie King. In all, Trudeau is undoubtedly one of the most dominant and transformative figures in Canadian political history.4849Trudeaus most enduring legacy may lie in his contribution to Canadian nationalism, and of pride in Canada in and for itself rather than as a derivative of the British Commonwealth. His role in this effort, and his connect battles with Quebec on behalf of Canadian unity, cemented his political position when in office scorn the controversies he faced-and remain the most remembered aspect of his tenure afterward. Some matter Trudeaus economic policies to have been a weak point. Inflation and unemployment marred lots of his prime ministership. When Trudeau took office in 1968, Canada had a debt of $18 billion (24% of GDP) when he left office in 1984, that debt stood at $200 billion (46% of GDP), an growing of 83% in real terms.50 Though his popularity had fallen in incline Canada at the time of h is retirement in 1984, public opinion later became more sympathetic to him, particularly in comparison to his successor, Brian Mulroney. Pierre Trudeau is straight off seen in very high regard on the Canadian political scene. Many politicians still use the term taking a take the air in the snow, a throw-away line Trudeau used to describe his decision to depart office in 1984. Other popular Trudeauisms frequently used are just watch me, the Trudeau Salute, and Fuddle Duddle.Source From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_trudeau, accessed on November 11th, 2010Appendix B Overview of the October Crisis of 1970The October Crisis was a series of events triggered by two kidnappings of government officials by members of the Front de libration du Qubec (FLQ) during October 1970 in the province of Quebec, mainly in the Montreal metropolitan area.These circumstances ultimately culminated in the only peacetime usage of the War Measures Act in Canadas histo ry, done by Governor General of Canada Roland Michener at the direction of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, having been requested by the promethium of Quebec, Robert Bourassa, and the Mayor of Montreal, Jean Drapeau.The invocation of the act resulted in widespread deployment of Canadian Forces troops throughout Quebec, and in Ottawa gave the appearance that martial honor had been imposed, although the military remained in a support role to the civil government activity of Quebec. The police were also enabled with far-reaching powers, and they arrested and detained, without bail, 497 individuals, all but 62 of whom were later released without charges.At the time, opinion polls throughout Canada, including in Quebec, showed widespread support for the use of the War Measures Act.1 The response, however, was criticized at the time and subsequently by a snatch of undischarged leaders, including Ren Lvesque, Robert Stanfield,2 and Tommy Douglas,3 who believed the actions to be excessiv e and the precedent to suspend civil liberties dangerous. The criticism was reinforced by evidence that police officials had abused their powers and detained, without cause, prominent artists and intellectuals associated with the sovereignty movement.4The events of October 1970 galvanized support against violence in efforts for Quebec sovereignty and highlighted the movement towards political means of attaining greater autonomy and independence,5 including support for the sovereigntist Parti Qubcois, which went on to form the provincial government in 1976.Source From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Crisis, accessed on November 11th, 2010

Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families

kidskin contumely Interventions Within inkiness Afri brook FamiliesIntroduction tiddler demoralise at heart swart African families is an central topic which has been condition up extensive circumspection in British amicable bend look into and literature to date. However, save a limited investigate on tiddler wickedness in African families nominate re some(prenominal)y dupeed the impact of socio- sparing factors on askionate execute treatments since the inception of the youngsterren guess 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is wherefore is the issue of socio-economic side of westerly African families life- conviction in the UK an measurable factor to consider in affectionate model hindrance in s bracer ab drill illustrations? My get down in addressing this topic is that inquiry issuance fields and literature visualize that disastrous sisterren and their families ar a good bring liable(predicate) than whites to be outcomeed to unnecessary babe ab mapping interferences by hearty cook agencies and a nonher(prenominal)(a) professed(prenominal)s (Bernard Gupta, 2006).Re centime research confront that in each(prenominal) groups, nigrify electric razorren were over- represented on the babe resistance narration nether the category of unequal p argonnting demeanour leading to exclusively licks of scream comp ard to white s live withrren (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may in all case be seen deep d aver the stage setting of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the descry that start throng, their socio-economic heartstyles be inherently problematic and compulsion correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and on that pointfore affectionate spielers may intervene unnecessarily in much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) families. societal goers on the contrary may waver to intervene with Black families due to beingness unsure whether certain p atomic chassis 18nt ing behaviours conclusioning from scurvy socio-economic emplacement be re tout ensembley an shout out or non.The potential consequences of such preliminary motion for Black families give be either that the electric razorren and their families pull up stakes be unnecessarily investigated under the tyke treasureion corpse and may be subject to judgeship orders, admitted to local anaesthetic authority pee-pee do, and/or fol subaltern, or that thither pass on non be appropriate preventative by cordial lapers for forbidding shaverren at peril of world-shattering harm, and therefore pincerren may traverse to be harmed or even die. This is evident in late(a) years, where the photo of somewhat slow African baby birdren in Britain has been eminentlighted by the tragic expirations of two African minorren capital of Seychelles Climbi (Laming, 2003) and the young boy k straightn as Adam, whose bole was ensn argon move in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more than(prenominal)(prenominal) youngly, media composings of likely ritual horror of African electric razorren in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to tiddler B, who was somatogenicly misapplyd because it was believed she was a kindokia dupe of witchcraft have by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005 Thompson, 2005).In a broader setting of use of use Socio-economic positioning is specify asa composite measure that typic eachy incorporate economic status, which is measured by income friendly status, measured by development and model status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30).The terce indicators argon interrelated neverthe slight non fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in m unitarytary value of economic status, defined as low-pitched income or meagreness. The difficulties for volume of wolfram African Black families who are chiefly asylum seekers from free a nd war-torn countries now nourishment in the UK are not hold in only to how they may be viewed by affable shiters problematic in claw plow notwithstanding significantly by their small fry-rearing discordences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006).The Frame land for the judgment of Children in motive and their Families (De powerment of Health, 2000) ground on the bionomic approach places a requirement on genial tempters to consider families histories, pagan and socio-economic status. on that pointfore the low socio-economic status of umteen west African families living in the UK is hotshot big challenge for well-disposed consummation professionals naturalize to safeguard and protect these children from maltreat from parents responsible for their care. Therefore place randomness from the literature leave be discussed to explore a numeral of issues that forget aid amicable release professionals to deploy the approximatel y appropriate and strong method of affable subject interventions in child sophisticate cases with western closely African families in impoverishment so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in loving achievement intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is labyrinthine and parental behaviours and child turn turn upcomes may not be the same in resistent socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within tungsten African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this cultural nonage as deficient, thereof fostering diseased viewpoint of African family kinships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can well-disposed work fares localize attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of westernmost African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce intellects of all westbound African fam ilies as deficient.These labyrinthine dower make tender work intervention a training challenge in late ages and therefore, calls for a new perspective in hurt of skills, fellowship and conceptual to a faultls to manage betwixt the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, however at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm.The dissertation has built its hypothetic framework on hearty work theory, policy and usage and volition use make out conceptual framework from the neighborly-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was in general qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary rootages. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the hearty work intervention processes utilise for due west African families with low socio-economic status.The first chapter provides literature on scorch African children and the child fortress carcass. Chapter two provides a watchword on the increase complexity of genial work intervention in child abuse cases involving westerly African families with low socio-economic status. It in any case analyse how socio-economic factors make for a occurrence parenting behaviours that impact on favorable work interventions and thus, manner of speaking western United States African children living in the UK into the child shelter arena. indeed chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating genial work conventions in the UK. It examines kindly work practices require to provide competent sociable work interventions in child abuse cases among west African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and security measures. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions obtainable to companionable histrions to use in effecting substantiating change in black African community. last chapter five discusses the implicatio ns of social work intervention do by social work professionals among western hemisphere African families of low socio-economic status.Chapter oneBlack African Children And Child security SystemsThe Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection SystemsThere are a military issue of recent studies on Black families and the child apology system which suggest that these families are dis residualately represented at different levels in the child apology system. gibbons et al (2005) con looked at the operation of the child protective cover system in eightsome local regimen in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they plunge that Black families were over-represented compared with exsanguine families on referrals involving tangible injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more practically referred for apply an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this decision illustrates parenting d ifferences in child-rearing, and the obstruction of deciding what forms of physical punishments are acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more possible to be long-lasting, however what seemed unacceptable for the deal who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point approximately child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their distress status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than livid families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) constitute that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative musical mode of add discipline in their children. But the coarse mountain of the majority ethnic community could use options li ke memory playing toys away from the children or not pickings the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visit their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children.Ellis (2007) also state that these punishments are presumable to be meted out in a moderately public spatial relation and, though they may be painful, they are improbable to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would surface to curb gibbon et al (2005) de terminal figureinations that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not presumable to be long-lasting.Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. one and only(a) of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant piece of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than b lack families with culture medium/ tall income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive voteless to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to fiscally sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the rattling people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic dowry, Gibbon Wilding (2005) question whether such referrals should be considered within the child vindication framework, or whether it would be fall apart to provide public assistance interventions and services for such families under the children in adopt serve (The Children Act 1989, England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a depend of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are place and implemented or by chance that sound judgments and intervention services are pro vided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further.Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than light children. They found that of all the children in their study strain on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals working with the families had no or little grounds of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic sense as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that leanness and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. mavin ability speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to coope rate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families.Further data shows that the flake of African children in demand in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This auspicate accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African children makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that around families of children in involve, regardless of ethnicity, spit out to bring up their children in conditions of destitution (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). M whatever West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to realize unpaid worker wel furthermoste last services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child social welfare services for black children concl uded that African children are almost doubly as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a complete, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommodated under theatrical role 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raise by families of low socio-economic status.Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official home(a) data are collected on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). look for data cay a complex and oft contradictory picture and once once more the nurture is often aggregated with data on other nonage ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which divide data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many a(prenominal) involved m ultiple absorbs and allegations nearly parental behaviour.Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these mould from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, ugly social work estimates and intervention, and overt and underground racism.The Government Policies And InitiativesThe Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury interchangeable Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some organisation policy beginning(a)s such as Sure part (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other political sympathies policy initiatives, it is evaluate that Sure Start Centres will be reactive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of suc h policies is questioned when there is no stimulate equality impact estimate of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year child care strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10).Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little consequence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change.It is evident that public life and welfare policy has been constrained by parochial perspectives which have tended to stress on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from deterrent services which could help to obviate the entrance money of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as easily as accompaniment approaches such as kinship care, are less well evolveed (Broad and Skinner, 2005 Farmer and Moyers, 2005).Chapter Two meagerness, West African Families And Child Proctection scantness And Child ProtectionAll families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with un custom or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes hand in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. many a(prenominal) West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction in the midst of socio-economic factors and their someone impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African fam ilies, who are also subject to stigma and diagonal on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it exhausting to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer somber parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions.Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas including ho exploitation ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare convey ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. thence one may dwell Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of reckoning highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship betwixt poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993 Gibbons et al. 2005).Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers go into the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in registrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and description were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protect ion system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their name calling placed on the child protection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the persuasiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system.Social work interventions surfaceed to have quite traumati c effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating fretting and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005).Poverty And Child Welfare ServicesResearch shows that the poverty see by many West African families may be wagerer met finished frustrative measures sooner than child protection ones. Yet scorn section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide agree for children in need, many social services children and family teams, and have sufficient resources to gibe their duties under child welfare and children looked after. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need punt for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to ac intimacy the part detriment plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the several(prenominal) rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004).A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of natural and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that outlives in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, factly those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child mal treatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002 Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study concludes that many black West African parents saw social work judgment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete ban and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political upthrust and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to accent on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where resea rch reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995 Tunstill and Aldgate, 2000). thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the cost to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means put on that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options. attractive in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual(a) addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The demarcation that the social work mission of pursuing social change and traffic with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relation ship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work dexterous poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding room accesss for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and stir childrens welfare (Platt, 2005).Poverty And Parenting perpetratesThe literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment and interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns alights the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children an d this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from diverse social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value digest to differences in parenting behaviour. This interpretation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-economic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income.In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, commandment and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to prevent the primacy of the childs welfare.The consequences of acquiring the balance handle in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment.The Government regulative Policies And PovertyBy the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also worthy for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct sign assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in perimeter cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work intervention practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures funding such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initia l assessment chuck out in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been pull (Department of Health, 1999).Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas see to it charge the initial assessment spot. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate response if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protectionan issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the rec ommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basal socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, current social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the controlling view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could merely be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the training of social work time, the readying of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research.The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research o n the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004).They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved by and large as a result of modern governance and measures to promote residence with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the first appearance of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbi reinforce a child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on particular importance.Chapter ThreeSocial Work PracticesHistory Of Social Work PracticeSocial work has its grow in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of jack ladder work but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009).The term social work intervention usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Pra ctice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective action not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social net workings experience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulteChild Abuse Interventions Within Black African FamiliesChild Abuse Interventions Within Black African FamiliesIntroductionChild abuse within Black African families is an important topic which has been given extensive attention in British social work research and literature to date. However, only a limited research on child abuse in African families have really considered the impact of socio-economic factors on social work interventions since the inception of the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is why is the issue of socio-economic status of West African families living in the UK an important factor to consider in social work intervention in child abuse cases? My aim in addressing this topic is that research works and literature show that Black children and their families are more likely than whites to be subjected to unnecessary child abuse interventions by social work agencies and other professionals (Bernard Gupta, 2006).Recent research show that in all groups, black children were over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviour leading to all forms of abuse compared to white children (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may also be seen within the context of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the view that black people, their socio-economic lifestyles are inherently problematic and need correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and therefore social workers may intervene unnecessarily in such families. Social workers on the contrary may hesitate to intervene with Black families due to being unsure whether certain parenting behaviours resulting from low socio-economic status are really an abuse or not.The potential consequences of such approach for Black families will be either that the children and their families will be unnecessarily investigated under the child protection system and may be subject to court orders, admitted to local authority care, and/or adopted, or that there will not be appropriate intervention by social workers for black children at risk of significant harm, and therefore children may continue to be harmed or even die. This is evident in recent years, where the vulnerability of some black African chil dren in Britain has been highlighted by the tragic deaths of two African children Victoria Climbi (Laming, 2003) and the young boy known as Adam, whose torso was found floating in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more recently, media reports of possible ritual abuse of African children in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to Child B, who was physically abused because it was believed she was a kindokia victim of witchcraft possessed by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005 Thompson, 2005).In a broader context Socio-economic status is defined asa composite measure that typically incorporate economic status, which is measured by income social status, measured by education and work status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30).The three indicators are interrelated but not fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in terms of economic status, defined as low income or poverty. The difficulties for majority of West African Black families who are mainly asylum seekers from poverty-stricken and war-torn countries now living in the UK are not confined only to how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care but significantly by theirchild-rearing differences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006).The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to consider families histories, cultural and socio-economic status. Therefore the low socio-economic status of many West African families living in the UK is one big challenge for social work professionals working to safeguard and protect these children from abuse from parents responsible for their care. Therefore key information from the literature will be discussed to explore a number of issues that will help social work professionals to deploy the most appropriate and effective m ethod of social work interventions in child abuse cases with West African families in poverty so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in social work intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is complex and parental behaviours and child outcomes may not be the same in different socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within West African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this ethnic minority as deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can social work practices direct attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of West African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce ideas of all West African families as deficient.These complex circumstances make social work intervention a major challenge in recent times and theref ore, calls for a new perspective in terms of skills, knowledge and conceptual tools to distinguish between the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, but at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm.The dissertation has built its theoretical framework on social work theory, policy and practice and will use key conceptual framework from the social-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was mainly qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary sources. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the social work intervention processes used for West African families with low socio-economic status.The first chapter provides literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving West African families with low socio-econo mic status. It also analyse how socio-economic factors cultivate a particular parenting behaviours that impact on social work interventions and thus, bringing West African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It examines social work practices required to provide competent social work interventions in child abuse cases among West African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and protection. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions available to social workers to use in effecting positive change in black African community. Finally chapter five discusses the implications of social work intervention made by social work professionals among West African families of low socio-economic status.Chapter oneBlack African Children And Child Protection SystemsThe Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection SystemsThere are a n umber of recent studies on Black families and the child protection system which suggest that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child protection system. Gibbons et al (2005) study looked at the operation of the child protection system in eight local authorities in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they found that Black families were over-represented compared with White families on referrals involving physical injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more often referred for using an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this finding illustrates parenting differences in child-rearing, and the difficulty of deciding what forms of physical punishments are acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more likely to be long-lasting, but what seemed unacceptable for the peopl e who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point about child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their poverty status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than White families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) found that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative way of instilling discipline in their children. But the vast people of the majority ethnic community could use options like keeping playing toys away from the children or not taking the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visiting their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children.Ellis (2007) also noted that these punishments are likely to be meted out in a fairly public situation and, though they may be painful, they are unli kely to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would appear to support Gibbon et al (2005) findings that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not likely to be long-lasting.Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. One of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant number of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than black families with medium/high income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive hard to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to financially sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the very people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic circumstances, Gibbon Wilding (2005) q uestion whether such referrals should be considered within the child protection framework, or whether it would be better to provide welfare interventions and services for such families under the children in need Act (The Children Act 1989, England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a number of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are identified and implemented or perhaps that assessments and intervention services are provided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further.Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than White children. They found that of all the children in their study sample on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals work ing with the families had no or little understanding of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic awareness as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that poverty and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. One might speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to cooperate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families.Further data shows that the number of African children in need in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This figure accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African child ren makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that most families of children in need, regardless of ethnicity, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of poverty (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). Many West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to receive voluntary welfare support services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommodated under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families of low socio-economic status.Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official national data are collecte d on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). Research data paint a complex and often contradictory picture and once again the information is often aggregated with data on other minority ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which separated data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many involved multiple concerns and allegations about parental behaviour.Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these range from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, poor social work assessments and intervention, and overt and covert racism.The Government Policies And InitiativesThe Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some government policy initiatives such as Sure Start (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other government policy initiatives, it is expected that Sure Start Centres will be responsive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of such policies is questioned when there is no race equality impact assessment of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year childcare strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10).Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little evidence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change.It is evident that race and welfare policy has been constrained by paroc hial perspectives which have tended to focus on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from preventive services which could help to obviate the admission of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as well as particular approaches such as kinship care, are less well developed (Broad and Skinner, 2005 Farmer and Moyers, 2005).Chapter TwoPoverty, West African Families And Child Proctection Poverty And Child ProtectionAll families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with unemployment or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes ha nd in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. Many West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction between socio-economic factors and their individual impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African families, who are also subject to stigma and prejudice on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it hard to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer serious parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions.Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas in cluding housing ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare state ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. Indeed one may expect Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of figuring highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship between poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993 Gibbons et al. 2005).Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers entering the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in reg istrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and interpretation were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protection system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their names placed on the child protection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the effectiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system.Social work interventions appeared to have quite traumatic effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating anxiety and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005).Poverty And Child Welfare ServicesResearch shows that the poverty experienced by many West African families may be better met through preventative measures rather than child protection ones. Yet despite section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide support for children in need, many social services children and family teams, barely have sufficient resources to meet their duties under child welfare and children looked afte r. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need support for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to fuck the part prejudice plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the individual rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004).A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and interve ning child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that exists in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, especially those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002 Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study concludes that many black West African parents saw social work assessment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete anathema and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political turmoil and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to focus on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where research reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995 Tunstill and Aldgate, 2000). Thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the costs to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means clear that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options.Engaging in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The a rgument that the social work mission of pursuing social change and dealing with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relationship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work practised poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding thresholds for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and promote childrens welfare (Platt, 2005).Poverty And Parenting PracticesThe literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment a nd interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns illuminates the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children and this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from diverse social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value contribute to differences in parenting behaviour. This variation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-e conomic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income.In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, regulation and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to maintain the primacy of the childs welfare.The consequences of getti ng the balance wrong in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment.The Government Regulatory Policies And PovertyBy the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also eligible for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct initial assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in borderline cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work interve ntion practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures supporting such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initial assessment except in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been committed (Department of Health, 1999).Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas covering the initial assessment period. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate r esponse if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protectionan issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the recommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basic socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, current social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the dominant view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could simply be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the provision of social work time, the provision of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research.The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research on the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004).They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved largely as a result of modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the introduction of the Framework for the Assessment of Chil dren in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbi reinforced a child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on particular importance.Chapter ThreeSocial Work PracticesHistory Of Social Work PracticeSocial work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009).The term social work intervention usuall y describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective activity not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is Individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social networks experience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulte